Identifying the normal (or even the abnormal) in mathematics can pose serious difficulties.
In 1909, mathematician Émile Borel (1871–1956) introduced the concept of normality as one way to characterize the resemblance between the digits of a mathematical constant such as pi (the ratio of a circle’s circumference to its diameter) and a sequence of random numbers.
Log in
Subscribers, enter your e-mail address for full access to the Science News archives and digital editions.